History of the Romantic Era Part III

I.	Italian and French Opera in the Later Nineteenth Century
	A.	Introduction
		1.	Italy like Germany was slowly trying to unify in the 19th century.
		2.	Italian unification threatened by powers such as Austria and 			France.
		3.	Very antiquated feudal system with aristocracy and censorship put 			in place.
		4.	Semisecret Carbonari organizations, Italian writers trying to foster 			patriotic spirit.
		5.	Youth rallied for cause of nationalism and freedom.
		6.	Insurrections in Naples in 1820, rebellion all across Italy.
		7.	Risorgimento movement occurred, war on peninsula in 1848, 			centered in Rome, Garibaldi took control.
		8.	By 1859-1860, almost all foreign forces driven out, Vittorio 				Emauele II was constitutional monarch.
	B.	Verdi
		1.	Political Importance
			a.	Important in Italian struggle for independence, as well as 				being 	most important Italian opera composer of century.
			b.	Earliest opera Oberto  debuted at La Scala in Milan in 1839.
			c.	Well received, three more operas for La Scala 						commissioned.
			d.	Nabucco, 1842 Verdi's first great triumph.
			e.	Successful largely due to politics, adapted from Old 					Testament story about Hebrews in captivity.  In Act III, there 				is a chorus in chains singing about their homeland.
			f.	Audiences inspired, wanted repetition of chorus against will 				of police.
			g.	I Lombardi about First Crusade, calls Lombards to battle 				against Saraceans (Austrians) who defy their holy land.
			h.	Verdi and librettists always tried to incorporate political and 				patriotic themes during years of Italian struggle for 					independence.
			i.	Appears in Macbeth too, Scottish exiles singing for 					fatherland.
			j.	In insurrection of 1848-49, he debuted La Battaglia di 				Legnano again connected to current events.
			k.	His name became revolutionary acronym (VIttorio 					Emanuele de D'Italia)
			l. 	He was elected to first parliament in 1861
		2.	Early Style	
			a.	Up to 1850, operas important due to their topics, but 					afterwards their musical personality showed through as 				important as well.
			b.	Fast paced ensembles inspired by Rossini
			c.	Suave, exact melodies reminiscent of Bellini and Donizetti. 
			d.	New simplicity to writing, amount of recitative reduced and 				scene ed aria was compressed.
			e.	Marchlike rhythms and choruses in unison, but with great 				range of style.
			f.	Act III or Nabucco opens with unison melody and simple 				marchlike rhythm.
			g.	Famous chorus in unison, but style changes, wide range 				and ornamentation with triplets.
			h.	16 operas 1839-1850 were early style
			i.	Four still performed and representative of his early style: 				Nabucco, Ernani, Macbeth, and Luisa Miller.
		3.	Ernani
			a.	For Ernani he was at La Fenice in Venice and was able to 				departure from normal style by choosing own subject, 				librettist, and singers.
			b.	Ernani politically sensitive, Verdi wasn't afraid of getting 				censored.
			c.	Francesco Maria Piave was his writer and wrote for 					him for 25 years after that, including some of his most 				well known operas.
			d.	Verdi had much influence over form and language though.
			e.	Ernani a love story with "romantic bandit" motif common for 				revolutionary opera comique
			f.	Verdi begins use of character types of baritone and basso 				cantante.
			g.	Verdi shows his use of compression of drama.
			h.	Uses parallel/relative minor keys
		4.	Macbeth
			a.	Verdi drawn to plays of Shakespeare
			b.	Gained strength as dramatic composer, integrating 					supernatural atmosphere and impressive power of the 				baritone.
			c.	Arioso vocal part in sleepwalking scene doubled with 				rhythmic figure in orchestra.
		5.	Uhh other stuff	
			a.	Gained reputation outside Italy after Macbeth with I 					Masnadieri in London.
			b.	Debuted Jerusalem in Paris .
			c.	Composed five operas for Italy from 1849-1853.
			d.	Rigolettom Il Trovatore, La Traviata, still some of best loved, 				and begin his middle period.
		6.	Rigoletto
			a.	Thought of by Verdi as revolutionary.  
			b. 	Again a very politically sensitive subject.
			c.	Dramatic development between characters as well.
			d.	Begins in C minor grave prelude with tremolo lower strings.
			e.	Ball scene opens with standard harmony and rhythm.
			f.	Tones of scenes ranging from merriment to horror.
			g.	A lot of drama in Rigoletto occurs in duets.
			h.	Accompaniments vary depending on mood of characters.
			i.	Orchestra creates very early 19th century Italian animated 				feel.
			j.	Uses fast-slow-fast form for duets from Rossini.
			k.	Arias less important, only three and they aren't multi section.
			l.	Best known tune is "Woman is fickle" sung multiple times, 				characteristic of Verdi's earlier style and that of his 					predecessors with emphatic rhythms and simple 					accompaniment.
			m.	Music has air of irony, sometimes extra measures set music 				askew.  
			n.	Verdi uses standard musical manners and adjusts them to 				serve dramatic ends. 
		7.	Later operas
			a.	40's-50's operas explore individual personalities and 				human relationships.
			b.	In next years he shows interest in more grandiose subjects, 				such as conflict among social groups or nations.
			c.	Monumental scale of grand opera is apparent.
			d.	1855-71 works mostly written for outside Italy.
			e.	Les Vepres sicilennes about massacre of French by 					Sicialians.
			f.	Very bloody, written by Meyerbeer's librettist.
			g.	Brilliant spectacle, mass choruses, grand opera, and Verdi's 				own style.
			h.	Don Carlos has both individual and national conflicts.
			i.	Crowd scenes reminiscent of Meyerbeer.
			j.	Verdi's style apparent though with lyrical melodies and 				famous aria.
			k.	Showed some influence from works of Wagner's prose with 				having one person direct everything.
			l.	Don Carlos was not a great success in Paris.
			m.	Aida successfully synthesized best of Italian and French 				tradition.
			n.	Seen as first work of final period of his career.
			o.	Debuted in Cairo for opening of Suez Canal.
			p.	Again love story within a conflict of struggling nations.
			q.	They choose death over patriotism or passion.
			r.	Though there are famous numbers, there is also sense of 				continuity.
			s.	Recitative scarce, drama introduced through arioso and 				accompaniment.
			t.	Ensembles are more monumental than before with full 				band, chorus, dancing, etc.
			u.	Solo singing contrasts these huge forces, manipulates 				drama.
			v.	Trumpet the with martial rhythm reminiscent of earlier 				period.
			w.	Harmonic language much more complex than that of Italian 				tradition up to that point.
			x.	Chromaticism and counterpoint in prelude.
			y.	Some attributed it to influence by Wagner.
		8.	Laterer stuff
			a.	After Aida Verdi less enthusiastic to work on operas and 				instead tended to his crops.
			b.	Death of poet Alessandro Manzoni who Verdi admired lead 				him to write Requiem Mass in his memory and he traveled 				Europe to conduct performances.
			c.	Was very theatrical, but successful everywhere he went.
			d.	Didn't undertake another opera until 1879.
			e.	Worked with Boito on Othello, wasn't performed until 1887.
			f.	Opera had to be cut when going from play to opera 					because opera moves slower.
			g.	Has spectacular operative opening of a storm.
			h.	Much of Shakespeare's writing eliminated to make way for 				lyrical flowering of Verdi's music.	
			i.	New lyrical passages made for certain musical passages.
			j.	Both Verdi and Boito fascinated by villain Iago.
			k.	Dramatically sets Credo monologue
			l.	Opera of later 19th century strove for continuity.
			m.	Realism became more important to composers than sticking 				to a set form.
			n.	Idea of scene step towards eliminating recitative.
			o.	There were show-stopping parts in Bellini, Donizetti, and 				early Verdi, but Verdi eventually worked towards musical 				continuity with changing textures to suit drama.
			p.	Orchestra able to develop motifs of characters to lend to 				continuity and large sections of dramatic action.
			q.	Motif that ended Act II begins Act III to signal new 					importance.
			r.	Verdi kept continuous music to delineate shifting emotions 				and attitudes, as well as controlling pace.
			s.	Some are gradual, some are interruptions.  
			t.	Meeting between Otello and Desmona has lyrical melodies 				with calm destroyed to symbolize Otello's mounting rage.
			u.	Constant shift between keys to match the drama.
			v.	Tonal center taken away to build drama and show 					uncertainty.
			w.	Verdi is able to characterize very well using orchestra.
			x.	Fluctuations based on dramatic force and not convention.
			y.	Sense of unity by ending of first tune in original key.
			z.	Verdi differs in Wagner by retaining metric regularity and 				using elaboration on tonal language for decorative 					purposes and not for sustained periods.
			aa.	Also not as big a focus on orchestra as Wagner, keeps 				focus on the people.
			ab.	These aspects present in last opera Falstaff, only his 					second comic opera.  
			ac.	Combines his power of musical characterization with 				reference to tradition of opera buffa of Rossini and Mozart.
			ad.	In conclusion, his career was full of virtuosity and vigor.
	C.	Italian Contemporaries and Followers
		1.	Verdi overshadowed all others for some time.
		2.	Boito's works brought back from time to time
		3.	Ponchielli's La Gioconda has some qualities of middle period 			Verdi in its numbers, few arias, and ensemble drama.  However, 			his pacing and musical characterization aren't as good.
		4.	Masgani's Cavalleria rusticate won a single act opera competition 			and was a success across Italy and internationally.
		5.	Old-fashioned in vein of Donizetti and Bellini.
		6.	Efforts put into making melodies expressive.
		7.	Hailed for verisimo in music.
		8.	Leoncavallo's I Pagliacci inspired by this short form, the two were 			performed together often times.
		9.	Drama more artful, music more sophisticated.  Less distinction 			between recitative and arioso, richer harmonic language.
		10.	Use of seventh chords and harmonic movement in thirds gives 			19th century sound.
		11.	Puccini
			a.	 Entry to same competition as Masgani was less 					successful, but got Boito and Ponchielli's attention.
			b.	He got contract with Ricordi, Verdi's publisher and did 				Edgar, Manon Lescaut, his first international success.
			c.	Has Italian melodies, distinct continuity of orchestra for 				everything on stage.  
			d.	Competes with singing though not to level of Wagner or late 				Verdi.
			e.	He doesn't use chromaticism of contemporaries, but 					expands tonality diatonically.
			f.	Seventh chords for coloration and modal construction due 				to impressionistic style emerging in Paris.
			g.	Greatest success was La Boheme. 
			h.	Libretto kept simple and tight-knit.
			i.	Streets of Paris used as a backdrop.
			j.	Displays economy with lighter orchestral accompaniment 				and layers with vocals better.	
			k.	Less adventurous harmonically than his other music.
			l.	In Tosca, he uses theme of struggle against oppressive 				regime, reminiscent of risorgimento.
			m.	There is a torture and murder scene that brings new sense 				of realism.
			n.	Use of duets with old fashioned harmonization and 					secondary  dominants reminiscent of earlier century music.
			o.	His 20th century operas include these tunes reaching back 				to Italian opera tradition of Rossini.
	D.	French Opera of the Later Nineteenth Century
		1.	French had no composers of stature of Wagner or Verdi in second 			half of 19th century.
		2.	Meyerbeer's later works successful but evident by mid century 			grand opera was declining.
		3.	New style called opera lyrique emerged.
		4.	It had simple love stories from modern literature, no violence.
		5.	Thomas was contemporary of Berlioz who wrote in this genre.
		6.	Most famous work Mignon.
		7.	Deliberately retrospective style with more recitative, more tuneful, 			and easily recognizable forms.
		8.	Repetitious rhythm, compound meter, and decorative 				chromaticism.
		9.	Predictable music fashioned after romances of Parisian salons.
		10.	Most well known composer was Gounod.	
		11.	Wrote in variety of genres as well.
		12.	Most famous work is Faust, with extensive cuts.
		13.	Recitative retains speaking accents and actual pace of dialogue.
		14.	Set pieces are more superficial however
		15.	Romeo et Juliette also very lyrical.
		16.	Massenet's Manon is epitome of opera lyrique.
		17.	Focus on one character, music very facile, French restraint to 			approach.
		18.	Climax where lovers reunite has pianissimo, very different than 			Wagnerian musical drama that was emerging.
		19.	Shows difference in French and German sensibilities of the time.
		20.	Opera lyrique won over Paris until Offenbach established a theater 			of comic opera in paris in 1855.
		21.	His music was fast moving, lighthearted, and full of satire.
		22.	Brought back style of mixing dialogue with songs, choruses, and 			dances.
		23.	Used rhythms of dances such as waltz, gallop, quadrille, and can-			can.
		24.	Greatest success was "Orpheus in the Underworld"
		25.	Rely on ridiculous breaches of decorum.
		26.	Died before completion of his Fantastique d'Hoffmann, three of 			ETA Hoffman's short stories.
		27.	Moments reminiscent of Rossini, and imitating expression of opera 			lyrique.
		28.	Bizet's famous Carmen also a departure from standard opera 			lyrique.
		29.	Wasn't a success at first, action was too realistic and indecent, 			music was "Wagnerian" 
		30.	Was later accepted when fitted with recitative
		31.	The heroine of the opera is the most captivating part
		32.	Also uses local color with Gypsy and Spanish style music.
		33.	However suave manner of opera lyrique kept to a degree
		34.	Toreador Song has Italian influence with marchlike rhythm
		35.	Brought qualities of Verdi to French opera with swift drama, 				musical delineation of character, and varied coloration in 				orchestra.
		36.	Exoticism also developing with operas of Saint-Saens in oriental 			themes.
		37.	Carmen was ultimately unpopular in France for depictions of 			ordinary people and lewd acts.
		38.	Wagnerism mostly shunned in France.
		39.	However French poets were inspired by his prose.
		40.	There were a few examples of imitative style of Wagner in French 			opera.
		41.	Chabrier mixed style of Wagner with emerging impressionism
II.	Nationalist Music
	A.	Intro
		1.	Belief that primary loyalties to an ethnically homogenous nation or 			people.
		2.	Products of culture should reflect character of nation
		3.	Began developing across Europe with Italian and German 				movements, and eventually lesser states such as in Hungary and 			Bohemia.
		4.	Developed in writing first, countries wanted to preserve their 			national languages.
		5.	Use of folk songs in larger compositions was first signs of 				nationalism in music.
		6.	Eastern Europe not relevant for first half of century due to invasion 			and oppression.
	B.	Waltz
		1.	Developed among peasants in Austria
		2.	Spread to ballrooms and larger cities
		3.	Became popular across all of Europe in early 19th century
		4.	Early composers wrote them for dancing purposes, later 				composers used them as concert pieces of parts of concert pieces.
		5.	As fervor throughout Europe died down, began to develop in 			Vienna as a national dance.
		6.	Joseph Lanner and Johann Strauss developed "Viennese Waltz" 			form of 5-7 dances each with two 8 bar sections and an intro and 			coda.
		7.	Also had distinct folk violin styles
		8.	Strauss's sons developed the style even further
		9.	Began having patriotic sentiments
	C.	Hungary
		1.	Nationalism more prominent in emerging nations
		2.	Had been occupied by Turks and Austria for some time, but 				western art developed under Austria.
		3.	Verbunkos style of dance, used for military recruiting, began 			developing.
		4.	Alternated fast and slow sections, accentuated rhythms,  dotter 			phases, violin ornamentation.
		5.	Was original a gypsy style but taken up by other violinists as a 			Hungarian national style.
		6.	Also were Csardas ballroom dances and Magyarnota popular art 			songs.
		7.	Art music began developing in Budapest in the 30's with a theater 			and conservatory.
		8.	Erkel lead movement with 9 operas based on local history.
		9.	Liszt popularized the style the most, with National melodies and 			rhapsodies such as his Hungarian Rhapsodies, imitating 				orchestration and technique of gypsy sound.
		10.	The pieces were extensively ornamented.
		11.	Techniques in music imitate percussive instruments of culture
		12.	Raised fourth and lowered second also used.  
	D.	Bohemia
		1.	Prague had once been a city of royalty and palaces for the holy 			roman epire.
		2.	Not much movement for independence in Bohemia in 19th 				century.
		3.	Tomasek and Smetana
			a.	Tomasek first to gain international reputation
			b.	Tried incorporating folk songs, but mostly had a 					cosmopolitan outlook.
			c.	Smetana's later career sought to create a national musical 				art.
			d.	Build theatre, intended to foster nationalistic musical culture 				in 1862
			e.	8 operas to Czech librettos based on Bohemian history and 				legend.
			f.	More famous are his comic operas like The Bartered Bride
			g.	Form reminiscent of Mozart and harmony and color of 				Schubert.
			h.	Few Gestures towards local color.
			i.	Followed lead of Liszt with symphonic poems.
			j.	Cycle of six symphonic poems Ma Vlast is most significant.
			k.	Episodes of life in Bohemia represented.
			l.	Castle scene, Moldau river, triumph of a maiden, all 					represented in music.
			m.	Full of programmatic devices imitating battle, water flowing, 				etc.
			n.	Polka rhythms used and folk harmonies.
			o.	Is able to use long melodic lines
			p.	Late string quartet based on his life, in style of Beethoven, 				Schubert.
			q.	Smetena's style, loosely based on Bohemian folk styles, 				became an idiom for Bohemian music.
		4.	Dvorak
			a.	Wrote a lot at a young age, including 3 Czech librettos.
			b.	Very disciplined, wrote 65 bars orchestration a day, kept 				organized schedule.  Also a nice dude.
			c.	Didn't get attention until winning an Austrain State 					Stipendium.
			d.	Brahms urged his published Simrock to publish Dvorak, 				they collaborated, Brahms proofread for him.
			e.	Became one of worlds most admired composes, unheard of 				for artist from "peripheral" nation at the time.
			f.	Early music showed dependence on forms of Schubert and 				Beethoven
			g.	In 1863 he played in orchestra conducted by Wagner with 				his music.
			h.	Operas and early symphonies have orchestration vaguely 				in this style but he wasn't comfortable with it.
			i.	First works published were Moravian Duets and Slavonic 				Dances.
			j.	Slavonic Dances have contrasting sections, 2/4 or 3/4 				meter, hemiolas, simple triadic patterns, folklike rhythms.
			k.	Some pieces are fashioned after specific melodies, some 				just follow the style.
			l.	Later operas were of the comic variety, modeled after The 				Bartered Bride.
			m.	Contrasts folk styles in Dimitrij
			n.	Final operas follow Wagernian model of continuous music 				and prominent orchestra.
			o.	Rusalka filled with folklike melodies, Wagnerian 					chromaticism, and italianite singing, all skillfully assimilated.
			p.	More conservative than his contemporaries, stuck to 					traditional large genres such as symphony, quartet, 					chamber w/piano.
			q.	Served as director of National Conservatory of New York for 				3 years.
			s.	Symphony From the New World.
				1.	Form is mostly very traditional.
				2.	However he reintroduces some melodies from other 					movements in last movement.
				3.	Often use modal coloring for folk sound
				4.	Music often associated with traditional 							American themes.
				5.	Imitated the style of Negro and Indian tunes.  
				6.	Motifs and form inspired by Beethoven.
				7.	First movement, native American rhythmic and 					melodic quality.
				8.	Gives series of motifs, then derives theme.
				9.	Second movement, based on negro tune heard from 					Burleigh, with pulsing Eastern European rhythm.
				10.	3rd, Beethoven's ninth motif, with Indian War Dance 					theme.
				11.	Last movement returns former themes and motifs 					with new contexts and transformations.
				12.	
			x.	Dvorak acquainted with with music of black singer Harry 				Thacker Burleigh (negro spirituals), as well as observing 				Indian bands playing.
			y.	Thought America should stop looking to Europe for art, they 				should turn to their own native tunes.
			y.	Cello Concerto written in America still in repertoire
			z.	Again, few modal qualities are imported.
			aa.	Overall, style is retrospective with clear tonality and typical 				modulations, and predictable metric patterns.
			ab.	His inventiveness is in melody, orchestral variety, and local 				color.
			ac.	No composers from other contras had international esteem 				of Smetana and Dvorak.
	E.	Poland
		1.	Poland was considerably large for some time, until divided and 			occupied by Russia after the congress of Vienna.
		2.	Church music highly cultivated in 16th and 17th centuries.
		3.	Patriotic sentiments seen at turn of 19th century in local styles of 			polonaise, krakowiac, mazurka.
		4.	By time of Chopin, Polish rhythms were in serious Polish 				compositions.
		5.	Szymanowska was a predecessor to Chopin, writing etudes, 			preludes, waltzes, polonaises as Chopin would.
		6.	Contemporary of Chopin Fontana played across Europe and in 			New York, wrote in Polish style and in style of American blacks.
		7.	Lipisnki was acclaimed Polish violinist, influenced by Paganini.
		8.	Weiniawski was most celebrated violinist of century after Paganini.
		9.	 Had rich tone, set new technique for bowing.
		10.	Traditon of Slavic musicians as virtuosos continued after them.
		11.	Some études, mazurkas, and polonaises have survived into 			standard repertoire today.
		12.	Two violin cocnertos celebrated, especially for including orchestra 			to greater degree.  Not nationalistic but romantic.
		13.	Kurpinski was central figure of Polish opera, conducted around 24 			works for musical stage.
		14.	Early operas patterned after Viennese and French comic opera 			from beginning of century.
		15.	Later opera Halka patterned afer Italian serious opera following 			Rossini.
		16.	Italian melody, scena de aria is used.  
	F.	Russia
		1.	Russia established early on with czars, expanded into 				Scandinavia/Baltics, Turket, and China.
		2.	Ties with the west were slow to form.
		3.	During Catherine II, Russia began to assimilate into European 			Culture.
		4.	Secular music not known until 18th century when Italian troupes 			arrived.
		5.	In 18th century, Italian opera played in courts, but actual Russian 			opera grew indigenously, including spoken dialogue and folk 			tunes.
		6.	Under oppressive rule of Nicholas, writers began speaking out 			against backwardness and oppression of western ideas.
		7.	Pushkin was to Russia as Goethe was to Germany, pushing for 			freedom.
		8.	Concert life emerged in St. Petersburg as Moscow due to contact 			with the west.
		9.	Music was made in individuals homes as well.
		10.	Glinka and Dargomizhsky
			a.	Some attempts for distinctly Russian opera in early 19th 				century.
			b.	Most important was Glinka, trained in Germany and italy 				and produced first important Russian opera A Life for the 				Czar.
			c.	Follows style of Italian and french opera of the time and 				alternation between chorus, slow, aria.  
			d.	Also some distinctly Russian tunes.
			e.	Glinka had mastered idiom of Russian sounding music.
			f.	Also uses 5/4 meter and pentatonic scale.
			g.	Ruslan and Ludmilla adapts even wider varieties of folk 				tunes. (1842)
			h.	Served as a model for orientalism and magic themes in 				Russian drama for rest of century.
			i.	Technique of repetition of simple tune against constantly 				changing accompaniment "Kamarynskaya".  Served as 				model for all future Russian composers.
			j.	Dargomizhsky's Esmeralda modeled after grand opera and 				didn't do well, instead moved to introduce realism and folk 				elements in his next opera Rusalka.
			k.	Last opera The Stone Guest falls between recitative and 				arioso with flexible accompaniment and modal coloring, 				influential for Musorgsky later on.
			l.	In conclusion, these guys founded Russian school of 				composition by incorporating Russian modes and stories 				into the Western outline.
		11.	Concerts of the time took place in court house and opera theater.
		12.	Only a few national productions, not many native musicians.
		13.	Death of czar Nicholas lead to musical awakening, Rubenstein 			founded Russian Musical Society which founded first conservatory 			of music.
		14.	While Russia wanted to move forward by adopting ways of west, 			there was also criticism of adopting western music studying in 			Russia.
		15.	Serov saw studying western music as backwards, adopted 				concept of realism.
	G.	"The Five"
		1.	Group advocating Russian music but opposed to Russia's musical 			establishment.
		2.	Made up of Mily Balakirev, Cesar Cui, Alexander Borodin, Modest 			Musorgsky, and Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov.  
		3.	Balakirev
			a.	Not much formal musical education
			b.	He met with Glinka which inspired him to champion 					Russian music.
			c.	Lead group with his personality, corrected and revised their 				compositions and shaped their opinions.
			d.	Helped found New School of Music
			e.	His own compositions not very touched by nationalism, he 				composes in a lot of other national styles too.
			f.	Falls into sound of Meyerbeer or Berlioz
			g.	Clarity and brilliance of orchestral sound influenced by 				Berlioz had impression on the others.
		4.	Cuy
			a.	Least known today
			b.	Spent most of life writing about principles of the five, 					glorifying Russian musical nationalism.
			c.	His writing is incongruous with this doctrine as well though.
			d.	Operas written on western subjects with little influence from 				folk melodies.
			e.	Sound also derived from French composers
			f.	Worked best in chamber and piano compositions
		5.	Borodin
			a.	Lacked early training, had professional nonmusical 					activities, and ambiguous feeling towards Western music.
			b.	Spent more time on scientific career than music, wrote 				compositions over long periods of time.
			c.	Spent time in Germany for several years, at first had 					Cosmopolitan style but Balakirev steered his direction.
			d.	Wrote Second Symphony, Prince Igor, and Mlada at the 				same time, parts of music transferred between them.
			e.	Symphony full of interesting melodies and effects, 					especially in the winds.
			f.	Melodically and harmonically it is not very advanced or 				Russian sounding, though there are some exotic sounding 				moments.
			g.	Rimsky-Korsakov and Glasunov helped finish Prince Igor 				which wasn't done when Borodin died.
			h.	Follows tradition of Glinka with folklike simplicity and modal 				inflection
			i.	Despite eclectic melody, still falls into style of Italian and 				French opera.
			j.	Polovtsian Dances became known outside Russia.
		6.	Mugorsky
			a.	Most respected today, but many works left incomplete
			b.	Little musical training, drawn into circle around army, then 				later became alcoholic and died prematurely.
			c.	Most works still in crude forms in manuscript and was still 				too crude to print.
			d.	Completed and revised by Rimsky-Korsakov
			e.	Pictures at an Exhibition is his crowning achievement.
			f.	He did musical representations of a series of paintings.  
			g.	Ten different paintings are scenes, conneced by 					promenades.
			h.	Piano version original, orchestrated version by Ravel is 				popular today.
			i.	Musorgsky introduced to realism principle that proper 				subjects for art were based on ordinary life.
			j.	Wrote naturalistic sounds based on this
			k.	Introduced an improvisational idiom to his sound by 					combining traditional sounds in unorthodox ways.
			l.	The five often used strange chord spellings
			m.	Only completed opera is Boris Gudenov, revised by Rimsky 				Korsakov after his death to fix orchestration
			n.	Incorporated random scenes from Russian history into his 				opera.
			o.	Scenes in the opera are separated by time, but connected 				motifically and melodically, helps develop drama
			p.	Singing ranges from speechlike to lyrical
		7.	Rimsky-Korsakov
			a.	Youngest of the composers, at first a naval officer, inspector, 				then a composition professor despite little training.
			b.	Developed proficiency for instruments and became the 				orchestrator of the group.
			c.	Early scored Cui and Dargomizhsky, then later Musgorsky's 				music, and then Prince Igor.
			d.	Distinctive orchestrations heard in Capriccio Espagnol, 				Sheherazade, and Russian Easter Festival Overture
			e.	Brilliance, clarity, and vivid tone colors heard in other 				members are most present in Rimsky-Korsakov.
			f.	Melody is doubled, not too much competing in middle and 				lower ranges.  Accompanying parts for color and not lines.
			g.	Such as in Sheherazade, he changes instrumentation of the 				melody while keeping accompaniment subdued and 					allowing color changes of melody to come through.
			h.	Orchestra supplies sharp bursts of color
			i.	Worked on a treatise for orchestration from 1873 until his 				death.
			j.	Support melody with blocks of sound instead of competing 				lines.
			k.	Saw scoring as integral to the work, like Berlioz.
			l.	Influential on artists of next century such as Glazunov, 				Prokofief, Stravinsky, Debussy, and Ravel.
			m.	Most of his compositions were operas, based on Russian 				themes and later fantasy themes.
			n.	Two qualities of Russian opera present: static instead of 				goal directed drama, crowd scenes are important
			o.	Opera style ranges from start Dargomizhsky declamation to 				post-Wagner chromaticism.   
			p.	Cadential emphasis on the sixth
			q.	Portrays abstract events vividly with his orchestration
		8.	Conclusion
			a.	Portrayed to be group of nationalist composers working for 				distinctly Russian art in opposition to cosmopolitan music 				tendencies of the rest of Russia.
			b.	Tastes of the group were ambiguous, they weren't strictly 				against western music.
			c.	There was also no distinct style and some were not even 				nationalistic.
			d.	However, they were very successful at collaborative group 				work, helping each other out and bouncing off ideas
			e.	Because Russian scales and modes don't lead anywhere, 				they had to find a new form to write in, done with tone poem.
	H.	Tchaikovsky
		1.	Continued in "cosmopolitan" or "European" faction of Russian 			music.
		2.	Was under spell of Balakirev for some time though and maintained 			interest in indigenous Russian music his whole life.
		3.	Only difference in music from the five was he was at conservatory 			and frequently traveled to the west.
		4.	Second Symphony highly nationalistic sounding, influence from 			Balakirev, features Ukrainian folksongs.
		5.	Uses Glinka's principle of stating melody multiple times and only 			changing the instrumental color and accompaniment pattern.
		6.	Obliggato lines for woodwinds, fortissimo punctuating orchestra 			parts…both characteristic of his later music.	
		7.	Conservatory training seen in his harmony and part writing, as 			well as sticking to large forms.
		8.	Seen in his classically structured string quartets.
		9.	Also had interest for fashions in music for salon and dance
		10.	Three ballets Swan Lake, The Sleeping Beauty, and The 				Nutcracker have all remained in repertoire because they're so well 			conceived for ballet.
		11.	Contrasts in color and rhythm, dancelike qualities heard in all his 			works.
		12.	He was always composing operas
		13.	Used Russian subjects, but was against realism doctrine and 			adhered more to grand opera style.  
		14.	Only Eugene Onegin is in repertoire today.
		15.	Use of neapolitan sixth to the dominant, giving it Russian flavor.
		16.	Maid of Orleans follows opera lyrique style
		17.	Tchaikovsky best known outside Russia for his symphonies and 			concertos.
		18.	Piano concerto in B flat minor still played, famous for random D flat 			minor intro theme.
		19.	Features "Russian finale" derived from Ukrainian folk tune.
		20.	Violin Concerto also known for expressive melody and 				transforming Russian folk idiom.
		21.	Toured Europe and Eastern US so his works were more known 			than any other Russian.
		22.	Struggled with demands of formal tradition and emotional 				expression and progression of events.
		23.	Fifth and Sixth symphonies reach pinnacle of rhetorical 				expressiveness.
		24.	Dynamic range is large, huge climaxes, manipulation of dark tone 			colors.
		25.	Motto theme of 5th symphony takes place in low register in the 			opening and finale.
		26.	Background wind patterns to create a thicker fuller sound.
		27.	Use of horn and trumpet calls too
		28.	Turns the horn sound into something much darker and foreboding.
	I.	Scandinavia
		1.	Norway, Sweden, and Denmark closely related, Finland was not.
		2.	Finland
			a.	Nationalist movement not until mid-century.
			b.	There was rich tradition of folk music, but art music still 				Germanic.
			c.	Majority of nationalistic Finnish music by Jean Sibelius
		3.	Sweden
			a.	Swedish music life dependent on Germany for 17th century.
			b.	Developed similar concert life to Germany in 18th century.
			c.	Concert society and native composers begin emerging in 				early 19th, conservative in style though.
			d.	Lindblad modeled some music after Swedish melodies, got 				praise outside Sweden, but not at home because his 					harmonies were too complex.
			e.	Berwald wrote several symphonies but was still not known 				anywhere.
			f.	Sinfonie singuliere reminiscent of Schubert.
			g.	Soderman wrote ballads accompanied with orchestra with 				chromaticism	
			h.	Jenny Lind was a famous opera singer. 
		4.	Norway
			a.	Music at an amateur level until 19th century
			b.	Annexation by Sweden led to nationalist movement.
			c.	Violinst Ole Bull improvised in Norwegian folk dance style 				around the world.
			d.	Denmark was culture center for Norway too.
			e.	First Norweigan opera in 1858.
			f.	Svendson and Grieg finally got worlds attention with music.
			g.	Svendson trained at Leipzig, spent most of life outside 				Norway, but still seen as Romantic nationalist for Norway.
			h.	Had strength in symphonies with clarity of form and 					orchestral coloring.
			i.	Concertos not virtuosic enough.
			j.	Adapted some Norwegian tunes but they're no longer 				played.
			k.	Grieg was at Leipzig too, contacted with Schumann there.
			l.	COntacted with Ole Bull and Rikard Nordraak, he sought 				out to cultivate a Norweigan musical idiom.
			m.	Set tunes by Lindeman, have some characteristic tonal 				qualities of Norweigan music.
			n.	Uses drone pedal creating interesting harmonies with 19th 				century chromaticism.
			o.	He didn't get a grasp on large forms, yet one of his piano 				concertos is still in repertoire.
			p.	Strength is in lyrical melody and advertousness in harmony, 				best seen in his songs, set to German, Danish, and 					Norwegian texts with folklike melody.
			q.	His later cycles approach harmonic idiom of Debussy
		5.	Denmark
			a.	Sophisiticated musical culture at end of 18th century
			b.	Damaged by war, took much time to recover
			c.	Began quickening again by mid 19th century
			d.	Most native Danish music was derivative of Germanic music 				of the time.
	J.	England
		1.	Britain's development in Industrial Revolution lead to prose, but no 			music.
		2.	Britain remained a consumer in the 19th century
		3.	While musical life was rich as any other city in London, no 				composers emerged that could rival the Germans or Italians.
		4.	King's Theater only wanted to see Italian opera.
		5.	Henry Bishop was most well known composer of small dramas, 			which included  airs and ballads.
		6.	English opera developed slightly after Weber's operas debuted in 			England.
		7.	Gilbert and Sullivan singlehandedly worked together to develop 			English operetta tradition
		8.	Gilbert used parody and absurdity in his texts, while Sullivan 			adapted different styles, namely Italian opera in the style of 				Rossini.
		9.	Most music written in England was by foreigners.
		10.	William Bennett was a distinguished pianist who wrote small 			pieces like impromptus.
		11.	Wrote concert overtures in vain of Mendelssohn
		12.	Mendelssohn was the primary influence in mid-19th century 			Europe, and Brahms was towards the end.
		13.	Parry and Stanford wrote derivative of Brahms
		14.	Distinct English voice not until maturity of Edward Elgar.
		15.	Includes Enigma Variations, etc. 
		16. 	His style draws both from Brahms and chromatic elements of 			Wagner.
		17.	No factors to nurture nationalism in England
		18.	Interest in 'Celtic fringe" at end of century
		19.	Some composers began including Irish and Scottish tunes.  
		20.	Individuality in music most seen in church music.
		21.	Wesley pushed for improving quality of church music.	
		22.	Oratorios were a big deal, Handel's were performed, amateur 			choral societies used them.
		23.	Contributed to idea of "musical gigantism" with oratorios and huge 			halls with thousands of performers and slower, longer 				performances.
	K.	Spain
		1.	19th century full of war and political turmoil
		2.	Italians controlled most of music in Spain
		3.	Conservatory founded in 1830.
		4.	Carnicer, most admired of first half of century, writing Italian style 			opera.
		5.	tonadilla, brief dramatic skit with music emerged in later 18th 			century
		6.	No spanish drama with music until 1840's
		7.	Zarzuelas became prominent by end of century
		8.	Fernando Sor helped found classical guitar playing
		9.	Pablo Sarasate was a great violin virtuoso who's Zigeunerweisen 			is in violin repertoire
		10.	Mostly outside composers seized on idiom of Spanish music while 			little was done internally.
		11.	Albeniz, disiple of Lizst started playing in Spanish style.
		12.	Contributed to impressionist style, introducing Debussy and Ravel 			to the bolero and fandango.
		13.	Composers didn't really begin composing in Spanish style until the 			20th century.
III.	Crosscurrents in the Late Century
	A.	Intro
		1.	All sorts of opposed ideas and ideals involving arts
		2.	Romantic insistence originality and progress
		3.	Idea of realism began emerging
	B.	Liszt and the "New German School"
		1.	Retired as virtuoso in 1848 to champion for the avant garde, 			including Wagner and Berlioz.
		2.	Also composed and wrote prose on music.
		3.	Preoccupied by question of instrumental music exhausting forms, 			moving away from being defined by form.  
		4.	Berlioz, Schumann, etc placed titles, programs to their music so it 			would be less likely to be misunderstood,
		5.	Conflict between Hoffmann, who saw music as purely 				instrumental, and Hegel, who saw poetry as a higher form of 			romantic art that could only enhance music.
		6.	Liszt's Faust Symphony has three parts that portray three different 			figures in a play.
		7.	Uses thematic transformation is used to develop characters, taking 			small number of motifs and developing them.
		8.	Symphonic poems, not in form of symphony or overture, and all 			have a connection with something extramusical.
		9.	They come in many different varieties.
		10.	Les Preludes is based on opposing tonalities and cells that are 			tightly constructed.
		11.	Hamlet is a musical illustration of a character using chromatics.
		12.	While influenced by past programmatic works, it gave younger 			composers reassurance that there was another world full of 				shapes and colors to develop.
		13.	Liszt's final period of his career was called "vie trifurquee" where 			he moved between Rome, Weimar, and Budapest, working with 			piano students from all over Europe.
		14.	Wrote sacred music in his final years, but it was highly chromatic 			and threatened the bounds of tonality.
		15.	Became sort of leader of "New German School" for his aesthetic 			stance in writings and championship of works of Wagner.
		16.	Became associated with revolution and bringing rebirth of German 			music based on formal shapes and ideas.
		17.	Tone poem idea also seen in semi-improvisational style 				rhapsodies.
	C.	Brahms
		1.	Schumann printed article on Brahms being a musical Messiah.  			He had to live up to this his entire life.
		2.	Polarity in German music would arise, as Brahms and Joachim 			were opposed to the New German School.
		3.	Influenced by classicist period towards the end of Schumann's life.
		4.	Early sonatas eclectic, but hallmarks of later style of dense 				sonorities and parallel thirds, sixths, is seen.
		5.	Brahms piano concerto in D minor successful at first, but hissed 			because not what audience expected of a piano concerto.
		6.	Orchestra and soloist participated equally and there wasn't much 			virtuosic display.  
		7.	Despite contrapuntal techniques, intricate rhythm, it is fairly static.
		8.	Worked as conductor of women's chorus for several years where 			he worked on Variations and Fugue on a Theme of Handel
		9.	Despite desire for novelty, Brahms stuck to traditional forms.
		10.	Chamber (1860-1865)
			a.	From 1860-65 he focused on chamber works.
			b.	Ran into the problem that had troubled Schubert and 				Schumann of how to write original sonatas and quartets 				after Beethoven.
			c.	He ended up drawing from both of them.
			d.	Influenced by melody, texture, and rhythm of Schumann.
			e.	Drew on formal structures such as sonata allegro of 					Schubert.
			f.	Brahms developed in his own music rigorous counterpoint 				and tightness of construction.
			g.	Piano quintet in F minor, displays mastery of extended form.
			h.	Also displays grasp of thematic transformation, subtle points 				of similarity among principal melodic motives of a 					movement.
		11.	Vocal (1866-1872)
			a.	56 Leider, chorus movement such as songs and romances.
			b.	Cantata
			c.	German Requiem most significant
			d.	Composed to passages compiled from old and new 					testament
			e.	Made up of contrapuntal textures, ancient points of imitation 				technique, even actual fugues.
			f.	Successfully combined old techniques with his evolving 				style, helped establish him.
		12.	Moar Instrumental Music (1873)
			a.	Finished two String Quartets, piano quartet, then last string 				quartet.
			b.	Variations on a Theme by Haydn for two pianos, and later 				for orchestra
			c.	Five measure phrases and ambiguous subphrases which 				lead to development of rhythmic and metrical subtleties.
			d.	Complex rhythms including 6/8 over 3/4, as well as 2/4 over 				6/8 and 3/4
		13.	Symphony 1
			e.	Success of Variations lead him to finally finish first 					symphony he'd been working on for 20 years.
			f.	Brahms not intimidated with orchestral composition, but 				idea of the symphony after Beethoven.
			g.	Tonality similar to Beethoven with movement to raised 				thirds and chorale-like first theme of the finale like his ninth.
			h.	Last movement goes from sonata-allegro towards rondo.
			i.	Form also drawn on from Schubert.
			j.	Fugal section in development based on material from the 				transition, calls to mind Mozart's Jupiter Symphony.
		14.	Moar Symphonies
			a.	Second just after first, comparison between Beethoven's 5th 				and 6th
			b.	3rd and 5th released as another pair in 1883 and 1885
			c.	Center of gravity towards the end in both
			d.	Fourth has 30 variations and coda on basso obstinate 				theme in last movement
			e.	In fourth, slow movement is sonata allegro too.
		15.	Violin Concerto
			a.	New challenge of writing for a solo instrument
			b.	Appealed to Joachim to help him but accepted few of his 				suggestions.
			c.	For debut with Joachim playing, Adagio-Scherzo replaced 				with a new slow movement.
			d.	Displays command of concerto form
			e.	Introduces motifs in tonic for orchestra, then introduces 				them on violin in dominant.
			f.	Triad based theme modeled after Beethoven's middle 				period.
			g.	Motifs, statement at end, cadence before b motion, all follow 				Beethovianian model
			h.	Relationship of tutti and solo sections differs from 					Beethoven and Mozart.
			i.	Orchestra and soloist interact more than compete as they 				had in Mozart and Beethoven models.
			j.	Tutti material was usually from intro with modulation, but he 				differs from that format with development, introducing new 				themes, counterpoint, and deceptive cadences. 
			k.	Most of violin virtuoso feats are arpeggio and scale 					patterns, not gymnastics of Paganini.
			l.	Solo is strongly thematically based, and sometimes blends 				into texture.
			m.	Brahms elements present: low lying sonorities (opening 				exposition and even in solo), recap to the third, harmonic 				style obsessing with pedal points.
			n.	Brahms modulates using pedal points but still stays away 				from Wagnerian chromaticism emerging around him.
			o.	Brahms makes use of hemiola and rhythmic ambiguity as 				well.
			p.	Rhythmic irregularity works because he keeps a regularity 				together that can be disturbed.
			q.	Motifs very deeply interconnected.
			r.	These interconnections become more apparent with repeat 				listens.
			s.	Second movement is ternary with a middle section in F 				sharp minor.
			t.	3rd movement first theme based on Hungarian idioms.
		16.	Late piano pieces
			a.	Wrote Fantasias in 1892-93 and three intermezzos.
			b.	Bunch of other stuff too.
			c.	Alternatively called intermezzos, rhapsodies, etc
			d.	Made up of binary, ternary forms, and some miniature 				sonata forms.
			e.	Brahms modulates by thirds in this piece to avoid an 					authentic cadence until the end of the section.
			f.	Display Brahms full bodied sonorities for piano, widely 				spaced chords, emphasis on low register.
		17.	Leider
			a.	Evenly distributed 200 from 1853 to 1896.
			b.	Often took texts from minor poets.
			c.	Songs are mostly through composed with freely changing 				texture and figuration for changing mood or meaning.
			d.	Pianos dramatic and pictorial (Ludwic Tieck cycle)
			e.	Vocal parts based more on arias and not recitative like most 				ballades.
			f.	Most of his songs compact, strophic, modeled after folk 				songs.
			g.	Most are simple melodically while some have complex 				lyrical expression.
			h.	Published 35 songs from 1884-86
			i.	A year before he died he wrote Four Serious Songs 					compiled from Lutheran text.
			j.	About death, begins pessimistic, but gradually goes 					towards love conquering death.
		18.	Conclusion
			a.	Brahms seen as craftsman and conserver of tradition
			b.	Showed more respect to musical inheritance than any other 				composer of the century
			c.	Collected old music, scores, folk music, treatises
			d.	Consulted with experts on Beethoven, Mozart, Haydn, and 				Bach.
			e.	Any innovation done with respect to past tradition.
			f.	Last great representative of Classic-Romantic tradition in 				music.
			g.	Perfected developing forms as well as using maximum 				expression.	
			h.	Early: folkier version of Haydn, later evolved into abstract 				formal sound today.
			i.	Oh, and can't forget them Hungarian Dances.
	D.	Bruckner
		1.	Also lived in Vienna during exact same time as Brahms
		2.	Lot of his music is sacred, he was dedicated to Catholic church.
		3.	Early works from 40's sacred and remind of Mozart
		4.	Caecilian movement called for imitation of even older styles such 			as Gregorian chant.
		5.	Used imitation of sacred polyphony all his life.
		6.	Doesn't mix well with more modern passages, such as seventh 			chords.
		7.	Some of his sacred compositions were in Romantic idiom though.
		8.	Bruckner's reputation largely built on symphonies.
		9.	9 symphonies, the last unfinished, with all but the first dating from 			Vienna.
		10.	First and Second were rejected by Vienna Philharmonic 				Orchestra.
		11.	Third was whistled and booed.
		12.	Audience put off by stark orchestral color, juxtaposition between 			unrelated material, and great lengths.
		13.	Bruckner had also given support to Wagner, exposing conflict 			between Wagner and Brahms.
		14.	Vienna public was generally conservative in tastes.
		15.	Not recognized until last decade of life, accepted significant 			revisions from others.
		16.	Complete symphonies have four movements, outer ones in 				extended sonata allegro shapes, with outer movements similar in 			content.
		17.	Beginning with 3rd, return to original theme at end to the 				composition.
		18.	Slow movements present two principle themes and vary them like 			in Beethoven's ninth.
		19.	Scherzos show influence of Austrian folk music.
		20.	Symphonies usually begin out of nothing, with an indistinct figure 			or harmony as the beginning, idea of form out of chaos
		21.	Works are huge in size too, with leisurely development and 				sections of static harmony.
		22.	Third Symphony
			a.	First representative of mature Bruckner.
			b.	Five years of composition and revision
			c.	Shows fixation on Beethoven's ninth.
			d.	Begins with single pianissimo chord building in strings and 				winds to form static backdrop.
			e.	Static quality to music, staying in tonic.  
		23.	Fourth Symphony
			a.	"The Romantic" finished in 1874, revised with new Scherzo.
			b.	Begins with horn call over tremolo strings and tonic pedal.
			c.	Contasts E flat with D flat at first but eventually gets to 				dominant, reminiscent of Schubert.
			d.	Movement short for Bruckner, made longer with coda.
			e.	Andante has too much similarity between themes
			f.	Scherzo has trio and truncates main section on repetition.
			g.	Melodic shapes brought back in last movement.
			h.	Lowered sixth that colors earlier theme.
		24.	Third Symphony revised so it less resembled Wagner.
		25.	Bruckner's writing is mostly diatonic though with shifts in thirds and 			patterns are detectable, with movements as blocks.
		26.	Long drawn Wagnerian melodies and choral like finale themes 			are one of the similarities.
		27.	Orchechestration is more modest than Wagner.
		28.	First two similar to Beethoven's fifth plus two horns, while 7,8, and 			9 add four tubas similar to Wagner.
		29.	Bruckner handles orchestra traditionally, doesn't use color mixing 			of Berlioz and mature Wagner, shows his attachment to playing 			organ.
		30.	Bruckner didn't even hear Wagner's works until 1862.
		31.	Bruckner's works represent first attempt to large symphony 				following Beethoven's 9th.
		32.	Challenged view of Wagner that symphony had reached the end 			of its existence.
		33.	Static spaciousness and slowness leads to a metaphysical feel 			and reflection of religion and awe in mind of the composer.
		34.	Scholar Kurth seems them as demonstration of form as 				embodiment of physical energy.
	E.	Leipzig
		1.	Carl Reinecke was director of Conservatory from 1860-1895.
		2.	Wanted to perpetuate legacy of Classical style in composing and 			teaching, wrote music reminiscent of Mendelssohn.
		3.	Large influx of students from other countries, but two German 			students were Weingartner, and Bruch, famous for two violin 			concertos.
	F.	Paris
		1.	Represented microcosm of Europe.
		2.	Opera overshadowed other forms
		3.	Maintained identity in the face of verism and Wagnerism.
		4.	In less sufficient areas there was conflict representative of Europe 			as a whole.
		5.	Some societies followed Beethoven, Wagner, Schumann.  Others 			oratorio and church music like those in England.  
		6.	Caecilian movement stronger in Paris than anywhere else.
		7.	1871, French Society of Music established to specifically perform 			nonoperatic French music.
		8.	Founders Romain Bussine and Camille Saint-Saens.
		9.	Saint-Saens proficient Parisian composer, organist, and pianist.
		10.	Championed for Liszt and Wagner.
		11.	Wrote symphonic poems too.
		12.	Gradually identified more with conservatism.
		13.	Dedicated to tradition of symphony, concerto, chamber sonata, 			and used diatonic language.
		14.	Mixed in Bachian sound into his music.
		15.	Franck was more forward looking, campaigned for avant garde 			music.
		16.	Schism emerged between Franck and Saint-Saens as had 				emerged between Wagner and Brahms.
		17.	Wrote six pieces for organ in style of Liszt.
		18.	Eventually used chromatic harmony, diminished seventh chords to 			modulate.
		19.	Prelude to Tristan converted him to chromaticism, seen in future 			tone poems.
		20.	Wrote many well known large scale works in last dozen years.
		21.	Faced problem of adapting sonata form to a new musical 				language.
		22.	Can't have sonata form without tonality.
		23.	He switches between tonality and nontonality, only using diatonic 			stuff in transitions for symphony.
		24.	Faure had unique voice in Paris, owing much to Chopin.
		25.	Moves towards nonlinear writing and use of whole tone scale.  
		26.	Proved himself with French melody.
		27.	Accompanied song with artistic ambition.
		28.	All French composers began writing in this genre.
		29.	Thirds movement in Faure's songs more common than fifths., 			expected function continually defied.
		30.	Used 7ths and 9ths in new contexts.
		31.	Signals birth of musical impressionism
	G.	Centuries End in Germany and Austria
		1.	New German School becoming acceptable, only Brahms 				challenged it.
		2.	Actual sense of direction questionable, since Wagner exhausted 			musical drama and Liszt merely attached a poetic idea to a 				musical form.
		3.	Reger used Viennese Classicism, Baroque style, and post-				Wagner chromatic harmony.  Was not widely recognized.
		4.	Richard Strauss took up Liszt's notion of symphonic poem and 			also forged new path for opera.
		5.	He was a professional conductor who composed
		6.	Wrote conservatively with flashes of brilliance
		7.	Premiered Macbeth and Don Juan following Lisztian model.
		8.	Had characteristic motto theme that Strauss would use in later 			works.
		9.	Strauss kept looking to get more potency out of orchestra sound, 			such as Till Eulenspiel which needed 16 woodwinds, 8 horsns, ec.
		10.	Thematic material is for orchestra effect and figures are for color
		11.	Founded on studying capabilities of modern instruments, he 			revised Berlioz's orchestration book.
		12.	Criticism that its too strongly based on poem.
		13.	Strauss insists pieces can exist without poems
	H.	Mahler
		1.	First made mark as conductor as well.
		2.	Proved controversial as conductor of Vienna Philharmonic with his 			vivid interpretations of works.
		3.	Saw role of interpreter as creative, touched up works if he saw 			weaknesses.
		4.	Reconstructed Weber's opera from sketches.
		5.	Achievements as composer in symphony and the song with 			orchestral or piano accompaniment.
		6.	Saw these two as intimately connected.
		7.	While structuring symphonies, he drew from songs and poet ideas.
		8.	Three works developed his style and method of work:
			a.	The Song of Lament
			b.	Songs of the Wayfarer
			c.	Youth's Magic Horn
		9.	Set them to his own words
		10.	Based on belief in nature as nurturing and threatening, as well as 			bizarre and gruesome themes.
		11.	Eclectic style with influence from Schubert, Weber, Berlioz, and 			Wagner.
		12.	Orchestral writing always unique, sometimes ironic, he uses 			strange instrumental colors.
		13.	First three symphonies are an extension of the music-poetic world 			of those three early works.
		14.	First Symphony was originally a tone poem in 5 movements but 			was revised
		15.	Always programmatic associations involved.
		16.	About a hero's progress through the trials of life and death
		17.	Incorporates content from his past songs.
		18.	Third movement is a funeral march, shows dependence on 				Beethoven and Berlioz image of heros.
		19.	Again draws from Beethoven's ninth with fading in with nothing, 			violins play harmonics, leading into a tune.
		20.	Second symphony also began as tone poem, based on literary 			sources and his own life.
		21.	First movement is a funeral march that had been written before, 			the hero from the first symphony is being carried to the grave.
		22.	Incorporates songs he wrote before for scherzo and choraleliek 			fourth.	
		23.	Vocal part in last movement for the first time, based on vision of 			Day of Judgement or Resserection.
		24.	Continued idea of synthesizing multiple musical types and 				programmatic associations with his third symphony which is six 			movements.
		25.	Proposed largest orchestra forces ever to that point
		26.	He wanted to portray music as primal, as will of the universe, and 			be able to portray the whole world in it.
		27.	Finished nine symphonies in total and started a tenth.
		28.	Only the eigth was as big, but same goal remained.  
		29.	Valued variety and novelty of color more than volume of sound.
		30.	Forms were standard and harmony was tonal.
		31.	Some chromaticism, but more movement by thirds was done.  			Pieces didn't necessarily end where they started.
	I.	Hugo Wolf
		1.	Contunued seemingly exhausted traditions as well, lived 				unrecognized as Schubert.
		2.	Anchored in traditions of German Lied, writing 80 something 			songs set to typical poems.
		3.	Influenced by Schubert and Schumann, but also formed his own 			independent path.
		4.	He breaks free and conceals tonal orientation until the end, with 			piano mirroring vocal part in diminution.
		5.	In 1888, put together collections of songbooks based on source.
		6.	Showed how important he saw the text to be.
		7.	Drew on early 19th century writers.
		8.	Used augmented sonorities
		9.	IDeas of two tonal centers and progressive tonality
IV.	Post-Romantic
	A.	Liszt and Chopin began moving towards color based and not directional 		based music.
	B.	Shoenberg felt after Tristan tonal system was no longer useful and wrote 		atonal music.  However, it was anarchy and he realized he had to create 		a new system before pushing its boundaries, so he created 12 tone.  First 		time theory created before practice.
	C.	Scriabin with quartile instead of tertian harmony.  However was very 		static.
	D.	Hindemann, progression of tension from unison fifths and fourths, to 		thirds and sixths, to 2nds and 7th, and flexible tritone.  Harmonized with 		rise and fall of tension.  Was competing form with 12 tone.  				accommodated modal melodies.
	E.	Rachmaninoff, raised in Romantic era, was a tunesmith who worked 		better with smaller forms.  1st piano concerto failed, second was better.  		While his works weren't formally solid, his expressive use of melody can 		be seen as the ultimate triumph of Romantic expression over classicism.
	F.	Impressionism began in France with non functional dissonances of Forei.
		Lead to Debussy who wrote in Mediveal modes, then wrote in tone 		poems with a dreamy and sleepy feel.  
	G.	Neoclassicism…strictly formal idea about use of small forms.
	H.	Romantic music survived in Hollywood music and writing grand tunes for 		movies.  Shoenberg went in 50's and improved their part writing.

V.	IN CONCLUSION
	A.	Despite significant developments in science and rational explanations of 		life and matter, Romantic notions about spiritual content of art still were 		able to develop.  
	B.	Later 19th century saw literary and artistic move towards realism and 		naturalism.
	C.	Natural declamation of Russians and verism in Verdi seen sort of as 		realism.
	D.	However, this was not strictly realistic, but still dramatic.
	E.	Wagner thought of as progressive but fit well into the Romantic frame of 		thought.
	F.	Actual music practice was not affected by shift from earlier Romanticism 		and idealism to later positivism and realism.  Music was detached from 		the rest of European culture.
	G.	The whole century and a half of music can be seen as a general unity of 		style and idea.
	H.	By end of century, tonal system, modification of traditional forms and 		shapes, and association with extramusical concepts had all been 			explored.  Every sound possible had been produced.
	I.	Experimentation had begun in France and would soon start in Vienna.
	J.	Balance kept between artists originality and publics accessibility.
	K.	Still great appreciation for these works today.
	L.	Mozart, Beethoven built on motifc building blocks.  Beethoven beg 		disrupting form, keeping tensions for artistic purposes.
	M.	Romanticists were melodists, distinct difference from classicism.  
	N.	Only symphonies which successfully handled melody and large form 		were Schubert.
	O.	Leaving musical abstraction began ending classicism.